In 1779, during the American Revolutionary War, the Americans assembled a naval armada known as the Penobscot Expedition. This fleet comprised 40 vessels—18 armed warships or privateers and 22 schooners or sloops serving as troop transports. It was the largest American fleet assembled during the Revolutionary War, setting sail on July 19 from Boston and heading toward Penobscot Bay in Maine.

Britain relentlessly enforced its self-proclaimed right to search all neutral shipping for contraband bound for Napoleon’s empire, as established in the Orders in Council. The young United States, whose merchant fleet was the second largest in the world, suffered particularly under these measures. The situation bore a striking resemblance to colonial times, as the Orders in Council also required all American shipping bound for Europe to pass through British ports and pay duties. Furthermore, the impressment of American merchants into the Royal Navy further exacerbated Anglo-American tensions. Britain, however, went to great lengths to placate America, as its export trade with New England was highly lucrative. Furthermore, the Royal Navy, fully occupied with combating the French Empire, was understandably reluctant to open another front. The Orders in Council were even revoked by the British government in 1812, but this proved too little, too late. As British ships continued to press American seamen into Royal Navy service, and following the infamous collision between USS President and the sloop Little Belt, the United States declared war on Britain in June 1812.

Prince Rupert (1619–1682), the German nephew of King Charles I, was a highly successful commander who fought for the Royalists during the English Civil War (1642–1651). An energetic and inventive leader, he secured many victories on the field of battle through his tactical abilities and bold use of cavalry. However, after the king’s defeat, Parliament sent him into exile in 1646. Rupert’s fight against England’s anti-Royalist forces did not end there. He took command of the remnants of the Royalist Navy at Helvoetsluis, Holland, and launched a campaign to disrupt the Commonwealth’s interests by any means possible. In response, the Republicans dispatched their most talented commander, Robert Blake, to eliminate this threat. The ensuing chase became a high-stakes game of cat and mouse, leading the two rivals from the stormy waters of Ireland to the sunlit Mediterranean.

Between April 9 and 12, 1782, over the course of four days, the Royal Navy achieved its greatest victory against the French during the American War of Independence, when Admiral Sir George Rodney defeated over 30 French ships of the line under Comte de Grasse. He successfully thwarted the planned invasion of Jamaica and restored British naval dominance in the West Indies. The French momentum was broken, and the British could now open peace negotiations from a position of power. This final engagement of the American Revolution is also considered by some to be the first instance of the use of the battle tactic of 'breaking the line.'

"When thinking of the Anglo-Dutch Wars of the 17th century, with their numerous massive battles in the Channel, it is quite surprising to learn that these two mercantile powers also clashed in the Mediterranean. Today, I wish to briefly explore one important battle that took place in this unexpected theater of war during the First Anglo-Dutch War (1652–1654): the Battle of Leghorn in 1653, a clash that ended English ambitions in the Mediterranean for the remainder of the conflict."  

The Anglo-Dutch Wars of the 17th century (1652–1674) saw an unprecedented number of ships and men engaging in large-scale fleet battles off the coasts of England and the Netherlands. After these engagements, large groups of prisoners of war were disembarked at various seaports in both nations. How were they treated? How did the respective governments handle them? This will be today’s subject on Heart of Oak.

When one thinks of Britain’s annus mirabilis 1759 the first events that come to mind are Hawke’s naval triumph at Quiberon Bay and Wolfe’s capture of Quebec. There was however that very same year another crucial but less known British victory which preceded these two battles: the defeat of the French Mediterranean Fleet at the hands of admiral Sir Edward Boscawen. It is usually treated by historians merely as a precursor to the Battle of Quiberon Bay and rarely written about in its one right. This article will try to set the record straight and will succinctly discuss this often forgotten pivotal moment in the Seven Years War (1756-1763).