Destruction of the French Fleet at Toulon. Painting by Thomas Whitcombe
Britain initially stayed on the sidelines as it witnessed Europe descending into chaos, with revolutionaries seizing power in France and even executing their king in January 1793. With growing concern, the British observed how France transformed into an anti-monarchic powerhouse, determined to protect its revolutionary ideals at all costs—even if it meant going to war with the rest of Europe. One event that significantly inclined the British public and government toward war with France was the French invasion of the Austrian Netherlands (modern-day Belgium) in September 1792. As always, preventing enemy forces from gaining control of Belgium played a crucial role in British foreign policy in Europe. Nevertheless, it was actually the French who declared war on Britain first, in February 1793.
While an expeditionary force under the Duke of York was fighting the French in the Low Countries and a campaign against the French West Indies was being prepared, several strategic opportunities emerged in France itself. Ever since the extremist Jacobin takeover under the leadership of the notorious Robespierre, some elements of the French population had grown weary of the bloodshed and revolted against the central government in Paris.
The Royalist revolt in the Vendée region and the rebellions in several southern French cities, such as Toulon, Marseille, and Avignon, in the summer of 1793, were particularly significant. Robespierre and his followers, as inexorable as ever, dispatched a massive army to southern France to teach the rebels a brutal lesson in “Liberty, Equality, and Fraternity.” Among them was a Corsican artillery captain, poised to make his mark on world history.
At Toulon, the frightened populace, cramped and starving, turned to their traditional enemy for help. They did not have to look far, as the British commander of the Mediterranean Fleet was just a few miles offshore, blockading the important harbor with his 21 ships of the line. Lord Hood, a seasoned admiral aged 69, received their offer aboard his flagship, HMS Victory, with marked interest. If Toulon declared itself for the Bourbon monarchy and allowed British occupation of the town, the Royal Navy would gladly provide aid to the desperate citizens. The French at the naval base, unable to refuse, accepted Hood’s terms.
Lord Hood began landing his men to bolster the defenses of Toulon, occupying the various forts around the city. When the British government was informed of Hood’s decision, their reaction was mixed. Some regretted that Hood was protecting the interests of the French royal house, while most applauded him for securing such an important strategic point. From Toulon, Britain could open up a second front. Furthermore, France’s powerful Mediterranean Fleet of 22 ships of the line was now in Hood’s hands.
Other nations also sent reinforcements to the Royalist troops, including Spain, Naples-Sicily, and the Kingdom of Sardinia. In total, some 12,000 allied troops landed to keep the Jacobins out of this vital naval base. Protecting the city proved to be a significant challenge, as it was surrounded by mountains that the Jacobins could easily use to bombard Toulon from elevated positions. To strengthen his position within Toulon, Hood ordered four French ships of the line to leave the harbor, as the loyalties of their crews were uncertain.
By mid-September, Robespierre’s soldiers arrived at the gates of Toulon to execute their death warrant. At its height, around 33,000 French troops lay siege to the port city. The young artillery captain, Napoleon Bonaparte, devised a strategy that would tip the battle in the Republicans’ favor. He proposed attacking the forts l’Eguillette and Balaguier to cut off the small harbor from the larger one. This masterstroke would make it impossible to resupply the allied troops in the city of Toulon. General Carteaux initially doubted the plan and sent only a small number of troops to support Napoleon.
Napoleon’s first attempt to capture the forts indeed failed, and the allied forces, sensing Jacobin interest in this sector, subsequently constructed another fort to strengthen the defenses: Fort Mulgrave. The British considered this string of fortresses unconquerable and even nicknamed it “Little Gibraltar.”
However, Napoleon subsequently ordered all available cannons in the vicinity to be brought to him. He set up a total of 50 batteries with around 300 cannons on elevated positions to deliver an immense barrage on the city. The allies, realizing the danger, launched a sortie against Napoleon’s cannons but were repelled, with British General O’Hara being captured in the process.
On the night of December 16th, Napoleon, along with Dugommier and Lapoype, launched a large-scale attack against the fortresses of “Little Gibraltar.” By morning, all the British forts had been captured, and the allied forces decided to evacuate the harbor. Some British blamed the Spanish for the failure at Toulon, as they had not delivered the promised number of reinforcements.
The subsequent evacuation was tumultuous, to say the least. The allied forces sought the complete destruction of Toulon’s naval capabilities. Hood aimed to dismantle the Mediterranean fleet, destroy the harbor’s naval stores, and obliterate its infrastructure as much as possible. Captain Sidney Smith of HMS Swallow was appointed to lead this operation of the utmost importance.
On the night of December 18th, Smith, along with three British and three Spanish gunboats, advanced towards Toulon to set fire to the dockyard facilities and French warships. Around 22:00, the fireship Vulcan, commanded by Captain Hare, was set ablaze next to a French warship. As the fire reached the Vulcan’s guns, they began firing automatically onto the shore.
Meanwhile, Smith set fire to the storehouses of Toulon, which were filled with timber, tar, oil, pitch, and tallow, as well as the mast house. Years of naval supplies were destroyed within hours, severely undermining French naval capabilities in the Mediterranean for years to come. When the Spanish set the frigate Iris ablaze, they were unaware of the vast amount of gunpowder stored on board. A cataclysmic explosion ensued, sinking a British gunboat.
Smith then aimed to set fire to the French warships in the basin after the Spanish had failed to do so, but he could not reach them due to Republican fire from the shore. However, he managed to burn two third-raters, the Héros and the Thémistocle. When the French frigate Montréal exploded, debris fell from all sides around Smith, forcing him to abandon his plan to continue setting fire to the French fleet. Smith’s flotilla then proceeded to embark the last of the allied troops left ashore before heading into open waters.
In total, the British managed to evacuate around 14,900 French loyalists, while approximately 2,000 prisoners and 6,000 civilians, including women and children, were slaughtered by the Jacobin troops. The allied managed to destroy 9 French ships of the line in the harbor. A further 4 ships of the line were captured during the siege, including two excellent 74-gun ships, which were incorporated into the Royal Navy. The massive Commerce de Marseilles was also retained by Britain, but due to its unseaworthiness, she was converted into a prison hulk.
In total, the Republicans lost around 58 warships, both large and small, on that day. This made December 18th arguably the most destructive day in French naval history since the Battle of Quiberon Bay. However, the Republicans still retained 14 ships of the line, including four fine 74-gun ships and the 80-gun Tonnant. Other ships under construction remained undamaged and were later added to the Republic’s fleet.
Olivier Goossens
Heart of Oak 
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